CDS English · Grammar
Joining clauses: name the relation, then pick the connector
Two ideas are joined by one word such as but, because, although, therefore or where. Decide first how the two ideas relate, then choose the word that carries that relation and the grammar it needs.
Why this matters
Connectors are one of the most tested ideas in CDS grammar. They appear in sentence completion, in 'combine the two sentences' items and in 'is the underlined word used correctly' items. Most wrong options are grammatical. They fail because the connector says the opposite of what the sentence means.
Concept 1 of 4: Read the relation first: contrast, cause, result, condition, place or time
Every connector carries a relation. But and although say the second idea goes against the first. Because and since give a reason. Therefore and so give a result. Work out the relation from the meaning of the two halves before you look at the options.
Definition
The terms:
- Connector: a word that joins two ideas (but, because, although, therefore, so, where, when).
- Conjunction: a connector followed by a full clause: because he was ill.
- Preposition: a connector followed by a noun or an -ing word: because of his illness, despite being tired.
The six relations:
- Contrast: but, yet, although, though.
- Cause: because, since, as, for.
- Result: therefore, so, hence.
- Condition: if, unless, as long as.
- Place: where, wherever. Time: when, whenever.
The method:
- Read both halves and say in your own words how they connect.
- Name the relation.
- Strike every option whose connector carries a different relation.
- Of what is left, check the grammar and the tense.
- Words such as fortunately and sadly also set the direction: fortunately must lead to a good outcome.
Worked example
Choose the ending: The tickets were very expensive, ___ (a) but the hall was full (b) therefore the hall was full (c) because the hall was full (d) so nobody came, but the hall was full
Practice this conceptself-check · 4 quick reps
The same idea in a real exam question:
CDS · 2021 · CDS (I) 2021 — English · Q103Moderate
Example 1 · Grammar · Connectors and Clause Joining
Directions: complete the sentence with the correct alternative
Although the group has been acquitted _______
Reading only the second half
An ending can be perfectly grammatical and still be wrong. 'Although he trained hard, he won the race' fails: training hard and winning agree, and 'although' needs a contrast. Read the first half, then the connector, then the ending.
Two connectors for one link
'Although ... but', 'as because' and 'so ... therefore' each use two connectors for a single link. One link, one connector.
Cause and result reversed
Because gives the reason, therefore gives the result. 'The bid was rejected since it filled all the conditions' gives a reason for acceptance, so it cannot explain a rejection.
Wherever versus whenever
Wherever is about place, whenever about time. 'He led the caravan wherever he wanted to go': a caravan goes to places.
Concept 2 of 4: Concession and contrast words and the grammar each takes
Concession means the first fact should have stopped the second, but it did not. English has several words for this, and each takes its own grammar. Despite takes a noun; although takes a clause; nevertheless starts a new clause after a semicolon. Words of cause behave the same way.
Definition
The terms:
- Concession: admitting a fact that goes against the main point. Although it was late, he kept working.
The grammar of each word:
- Despite + noun or -ing: despite the rain, despite being tired. Never 'despite of'.
- In spite of + noun or -ing: always with 'of'. In spite of the fact that + clause.
- Although / though + clause.
- Because + clause; because of + noun. Due to + noun, never due to + clause.
- Since and for (meaning because) + clause.
- Whereas puts two different facts side by side.
- Nevertheless / however start a new clause, after a semicolon or a full stop.
- One connector per link: never 'as because', 'even he', 'forever he'.
| Word | Followed by | Relation | Tested in | Sitting |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Despite | A noun or -ing word, no 'of' | Contrast | I could not sleep despite being very tired. 'Despite of the warning' is wrong. | 2021 (I), 2024 (II) |
| In spite of | A noun, an -ing word, or 'the fact that' + clause | Contrast | He undertook the difficult task in spite of the fact that he had no spare time. 'In spite the cold' is wrong. | 2024 (II) |
| Because of / because | Because of + noun; because + clause | Cause | She married him because of his nature. He pledged his organs because he had himself received one. | 2021 (I), 2024 (II) |
| Although | A full clause | Contrast | He wrote the exam with the utmost confidence although he was grossly underprepared. | 2024 (II) |
| Since | A full clause | Cause | He refused the honour since he did not trust the organisation. 'As because' and 'due to he' are wrong. | 2024 (II) |
| For (= because) | A full clause, after the main clause | Cause | He was adamant to undertake the journey, for he had promised to visit his school. | 2024 (II) |
| Whereas | A full clause with a different fact | Contrast of two facts | Kavya is interested in reading books, whereas her sister's interest is outdoor games. You have been frivolous, whereas I have been serious. | 2020 (I), 2024 (II) |
| Nevertheless | A new clause, after a semicolon | Contrast | The difficulties seemed insurmountable; nevertheless, the courage to carry on was undaunted. | 2024 (II) |
Ask two questions: what relation does the word carry, and does it want a noun or a clause after it?
Practice this conceptself-check · 4 quick reps
The same idea in a real exam question:
CDS · 2021 · CDS (I) 2021 — English · Q106Easy
Example 2 · Grammar · Connectors and Clause Joining
Directions: complete the sentence with the correct alternative
I could not sleep _______
Despite of
Despite never takes 'of'. In spite always does. The two are swapped in exam options: 'despite of the warning' and 'in spite the cold' are both wrong.
Nevertheless used like but
Nevertheless is an adverb, not a conjunction. It starts a new clause after a semicolon or a full stop: '...; nevertheless, ...'. Dropped into the middle of a sentence with no punctuation, it is wrong.
Two conjunctions together
'As because', 'even he' and 'forever he' are not connectors. One clean word does the job: since, although, for.
Contrast where the meaning is cause
'He pledged his organs though he had himself received one' sets up a contrast that is not there. Receiving an organ is the reason for the pledge, so the word is because.
Concept 3 of 4: Fixed pairs: no sooner...than, not only...but also, so...that, as...so
Some connectors come in two parts, and the second part is fixed. Once a sentence opens with 'no sooner', the other half must start with 'than'. 'Not only' needs 'but also'; 'so' + adjective needs 'that'. Learn each pair as one unit.
Definition
The terms:
- Correlative pair: a connector in two parts that always work together.
The pairs:
- No sooner ... than: one action came right after another. The verb after no sooner is inverted: No sooner had he left than it rained (or No sooner did he leave than ...). Never 'then', 'but' or 'when'.
- Hardly / scarcely ... when: the same meaning, but with 'when'.
- Not only ... but also: adds a second quality or action.
- So + adjective ... that: a cause and its result. Too ... to has the same sense: too tired to stand.
- As ... so: As you sow, so shall you reap.
- More ... than: comparison. Than, never then.
- No option but to + verb.
| Pair | Fixed second part | Tested in | Sitting |
|---|---|---|---|
| No sooner | than | No sooner did I arrive at the airport than the flight took off. No sooner had he returned than he was off again. No sooner did the teacher enter the classroom than the students stopped talking. | 2020 (I), 2022 (I), 2023 (II) |
| Not only | but also | He is not only hard-working, but also honest. | 2020 (I) |
| So + adjective | that + result | He is so tired that he could scarcely stand. | 2020 (I) |
| As | so | As you have made your bed, so you must lie on it. | 2022 (I) |
| No other option | but to + verb | Elam has no other option but to accept the challenge. | 2021 (I) |
| More | than | The younger man has more money than brains. | 2022 (I) |
| Where there is a will | there is a way | A proverb: the second half is fixed and stays in the present. | 2022 (II) |
If you see the first half of a pair, look for its fixed second half in the options before anything else.
Practice this conceptself-check · 4 quick reps
The same idea in a real exam question:
CDS · 2022 · CDS (I) 2022 — English · Q86Easy
Example 3 · Grammar · Connectors and Clause Joining
Directions: complete the sentence with the correct alternative
No sooner did I arrive at the airport _______
Then for than
Than compares (more money than brains) and closes 'no sooner'. Then means 'next' or 'at that time'. 'No sooner had the bell rung then the children ran out' is wrong.
Swapped pairs
No sooner goes with than; hardly and scarcely go with when. 'No sooner ... when' and 'Hardly ... than' are both wrong.
Too with that
Too goes with to: too tired to stand. So goes with that: so tired that he could not stand. Do not mix them.
Half of 'not only ... but also'
'He is not hard-working but also honest' drops the 'only' and now says he is not hard-working. Keep both halves of the pair.
Concept 4 of 4: Relative clauses: who, that, what
A relative clause is a small clause that describes a noun: the man who called you. The relative pronoun links it to the noun. Who is for people, which for things, that for either in a defining clause, and what means 'the thing that' and needs no noun before it.
Definition
The terms:
- Relative pronoun: who, whom, whose, which, that. It starts a clause that describes the noun before it.
- Defining clause: a relative clause that tells which one: stories that have unhappy endings. It has no commas.
The rules:
- Who for people; which for things; that for people or things in a defining clause.
- After everything, all, nothing, the only and a superlative, use that.
- What = the thing that. It never follows a noun: 'everything what' is wrong; 'what I told him' is right.
- When the relative pronoun is the subject of its clause, it cannot be dropped: a man who sold fruit, not 'a man he sold fruit'.
The method:
- Find the noun the clause describes. Is it a person, a thing, or no noun at all?
- Check whether that noun is everything, all or a superlative.
- Pick the pronoun that fits both.
Worked example
Choose: This is the best film ___ (a) which I have ever seen (b) what I have ever seen (c) that I have ever seen (d) I have ever seen it
Practice this conceptself-check · 3 quick reps
The same idea in a real exam question:
CDS · 2022 · CDS (II) 2022 — English · Q28Easy
Example 4 · Grammar · Connectors and Clause Joining
Directions: complete the sentence with the correct alternative
Once I met a traveller
What after a noun
'Not everything what happened was my fault' is wrong. What already contains its own noun ('the thing that'). After everything, use that.
Dropping the subject pronoun
'I met a man he sold fruit' runs two sentences together. The relative pronoun is needed to join them: I met a man who sold fruit.
A changed tense or a stray modal
When two options use the right pronoun, check the verb. 'I don't like stories that have unhappy endings' is a general fact, so the present is right; 'had' or 'can have' change the meaning.
Summary — formulas & gotchas at a glance
A revision cheat-sheet for the formulas and gotchas above. Click any concept name to jump back to its full explanation.
Reference tables (2)
Concession and contrast words and the grammar each takes8 rows
| Word | Followed by | Relation | Tested in | Sitting |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Despite | A noun or -ing word, no 'of' | Contrast | I could not sleep despite being very tired. 'Despite of the warning' is wrong. | 2021 (I), 2024 (II) |
| In spite of | A noun, an -ing word, or 'the fact that' + clause | Contrast | He undertook the difficult task in spite of the fact that he had no spare time. 'In spite the cold' is wrong. | 2024 (II) |
| Because of / because | Because of + noun; because + clause | Cause | She married him because of his nature. He pledged his organs because he had himself received one. | 2021 (I), 2024 (II) |
| Although | A full clause | Contrast | He wrote the exam with the utmost confidence although he was grossly underprepared. | 2024 (II) |
| Since | A full clause | Cause | He refused the honour since he did not trust the organisation. 'As because' and 'due to he' are wrong. | 2024 (II) |
| For (= because) | A full clause, after the main clause | Cause | He was adamant to undertake the journey, for he had promised to visit his school. | 2024 (II) |
| Whereas | A full clause with a different fact | Contrast of two facts | Kavya is interested in reading books, whereas her sister's interest is outdoor games. You have been frivolous, whereas I have been serious. | 2020 (I), 2024 (II) |
| Nevertheless | A new clause, after a semicolon | Contrast | The difficulties seemed insurmountable; nevertheless, the courage to carry on was undaunted. | 2024 (II) |
Ask two questions: what relation does the word carry, and does it want a noun or a clause after it?
Fixed pairs: no sooner...than, not only...but also, so...that, as...so7 rows
| Pair | Fixed second part | Tested in | Sitting |
|---|---|---|---|
| No sooner | than | No sooner did I arrive at the airport than the flight took off. No sooner had he returned than he was off again. No sooner did the teacher enter the classroom than the students stopped talking. | 2020 (I), 2022 (I), 2023 (II) |
| Not only | but also | He is not only hard-working, but also honest. | 2020 (I) |
| So + adjective | that + result | He is so tired that he could scarcely stand. | 2020 (I) |
| As | so | As you have made your bed, so you must lie on it. | 2022 (I) |
| No other option | but to + verb | Elam has no other option but to accept the challenge. | 2021 (I) |
| More | than | The younger man has more money than brains. | 2022 (I) |
| Where there is a will | there is a way | A proverb: the second half is fixed and stays in the present. | 2022 (II) |
If you see the first half of a pair, look for its fixed second half in the options before anything else.
Watch out for (15)
- Reading only the second half→ Read the relation first: contrast, cause, result, condition, place or time
- Two connectors for one link→ Read the relation first: contrast, cause, result, condition, place or time
- Cause and result reversed→ Read the relation first: contrast, cause, result, condition, place or time
- Wherever versus whenever→ Read the relation first: contrast, cause, result, condition, place or time
- Despite of→ Concession and contrast words and the grammar each takes
- Nevertheless used like but→ Concession and contrast words and the grammar each takes
- Two conjunctions together→ Concession and contrast words and the grammar each takes
- Contrast where the meaning is cause→ Concession and contrast words and the grammar each takes
- Then for than→ Fixed pairs: no sooner...than, not only...but also, so...that, as...so
- Swapped pairs→ Fixed pairs: no sooner...than, not only...but also, so...that, as...so
- Too with that→ Fixed pairs: no sooner...than, not only...but also, so...that, as...so
- Half of 'not only ... but also'→ Fixed pairs: no sooner...than, not only...but also, so...that, as...so
- What after a noun→ Relative clauses: who, that, what
- Dropping the subject pronoun→ Relative clauses: who, that, what
- A changed tense or a stray modal→ Relative clauses: who, that, what
Test yourself on Grammar
20 past CDS questions from this chapter, timed at 20 minutes and marked the way the exam marks it. You see your score and every answer the moment you finish. Free to start.