CDS History · Medieval India
Peasants, Trade and Travellers
Mughal peasants, zamindars and village servants, the crafts and mines of medieval India, and the travellers from Al-Biruni to Bernier whose accounts describe it all.
Why this matters
Eighteen CDS questions, the most of any page. Eight are on travellers: who wrote which book, who served whom, who said a famous line. The peasant questions come almost word for word from the NCERT chapter on peasants and zamindars.
Concept 1 of 3: Peasants, zamindars and village servants
Most people in Mughal India were peasants. Persian records had several words for them, and different words for those who farmed their own village and those who farmed someone else's. Above the peasant stood the zamindar, and above him the state.
Definition
- Indo-Persian sources call the peasant raiyat (or riaya), muzarian, kisan or asami. A majur was a hired labourer, not a peasant.
- Khud-kashta peasants lived in the village where they farmed. Pahi-kashta peasants were non-resident cultivators who farmed another village's land on contract, either because its revenue terms were better or because economic distress drove them there.
- Zamindars were an exploitative class, yet in many 17th century agrarian uprisings in north India peasants backed them against the state.
- Panchayat documents from Rajasthan, Gujarat and Maharashtra record petitions by women against a husband's infidelity or his neglect of wife and children.
- The historian Irfan Habib argued that the Mughal state was not just the protector of the exploiting classes but itself the main instrument of exploitation.
- Balutedars were the village servants and artisans of the medieval Deccan and Maharashtra (carpenter, blacksmith, potter, barber). They served the village as a whole and were paid a share of its harvest.
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Raiyat, muzarian, asami, kisan | Words for a peasant in Mughal Persian sources (majur was a labourer)Q CDS 2022 (I): raiyat, asami and muzarian; not majur. |
| Khud-kashta | Resident peasant farming his own village |
| Pahi-kashta | Non-resident peasant farming on contract, for better terms or from distressQ CDS 2016 (II): both statements true, and the second explains the first. |
| Zamindar | Exploitative, yet often backed by peasants in 17th century revoltsQ |
| Panchayat records | Women's petitions against infidelity and neglect (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra)Q |
| Balutedar | Village servant or artisan of the Deccan, serving the whole villageQ |
Practice this conceptself-check · 4 quick reps
The same idea in a real exam question:
CDS · 2022 · CDS (I) 2022 — General Knowledge · Q67Hard
Example 1 · Medieval India · Peasants, Trade and Travellers
Which of the following terms were used in the Indo-Persian sources of the Mughal period to denote a peasant ?
1. Raiyat
2. Asami
3. Muzarian
4. Majur
Select the correct answer using the code given below :
Balutedars served the village, not one family
Balutedars were paid by the village as a whole from its harvest. A statement that they were employed by an individual peasant family is false.
Exploiter and ally at once
Zamindars exploited peasants and were backed by them in revolts against the state. Both are true, but the second does not explain the first.
Concept 2 of 3: Crafts, mines and coins
Medieval India made dye, cut gems and cast metal for the world. CDS picks one craft at a time and asks what changed it or where it was done.
Definition
- Indigo: the dye is made by steeping and beating the plant in vats. Lining the vats with lime and gypsum mortar made them waterproof, and this greatly improved indigo making.
- Diamonds were mined at Panna in Bundelkhand in the Sultanate period. Khambhat (Cambay) was a port where gems were cut and traded, not mined. Later, Golconda became the great diamond market of the Deccan.
- The Ahoms of the Brahmaputra valley were skilled metal-casters who made fine matchlocks, cannon and gunpowder.
- Kopeki (the Russian kopek) is the name of a coin.
Practice this conceptself-check · 4 quick reps
The same idea in a real exam question:
CDS · 2025 · CDS (I) 2025 — General Knowledge · Q40Hard
Example 2 · Medieval India · Peasants, Trade and Travellers
In medieval India, the process of indigo extraction underwent great improvement as a result of the :
Khambhat traded gems, Panna mined them
Khambhat was a port where gems were cut and sold. Diamonds were mined at Panna.
Concept 3 of 3: Travellers' accounts
Much of what we know about medieval India comes from outsiders who wrote down what they saw. Each one came at a different time, served a different master and wrote one famous book or line. Put them in order and attach each to his fact.
Definition
- Al-Biruni (973 to 1048), from Khwarizm, came with Mahmud of Ghazni and wrote the Kitab-ul-Hind in Arabic.
- Ibn Battuta of Morocco (14th century) wrote his travels, the Rihla, in Arabic. Muhammad bin Tughluq made him qazi of Delhi and sent him as envoy to China.
- Francisco Pelsaert, a Dutch merchant at Agra (about 1626), wrote: 'So much is wrung from the peasants that even dry bread is scarcely left to fill their stomachs.'
- Francois Bernier (French, in India 1656 to 1668) was physician to Prince Dara Shikoh, Shah Jahan's eldest son, and later served the noble Danishmand Khan.
- Jean-Baptiste Tavernier, a French jeweller, made six voyages to India and went home to France.
- Niccolao Manucci (Venice) came in 1653, served in Mughal armies and as a physician, and never returned to Europe; he died in India.
- Abbe J. A. Dubois, a French missionary in south India around 1800, wrote that a Hindu woman could go anywhere alone without fear of idle loungers.
| Traveller | From and when | Fact asked |
|---|---|---|
| Al-Biruni | Khwarizm, 11th century | Kitab-ul-Hind, written in ArabicQ CDS 2020 (II): Arabic, not Persian. |
| Ibn Battuta | Morocco, 14th century | Rihla in Arabic; Muhammad bin Tughluq's envoy to ChinaQ Asked twice: CDS 2020 (II) for the envoy and 2026 (I) for the Rihla. |
| Francisco Pelsaert | Holland, about 1626 | So much is wrung from the peasants...Q |
| Francois Bernier | France, 1656 to 1668 | Physician to Prince Dara ShikohQ |
| Niccolao Manucci | Venice, from 1653 | Never returned to Europe; died in IndiaQ CDS 2018 (II): Manucci, not Bernier or Tavernier. |
| Jean-Baptiste Tavernier | France, 17th century | Jeweller; six voyages to IndiaQ |
| Abbe J. A. Dubois | France, around 1800 | A Hindu woman could go anywhere aloneQ |
Practice this conceptself-check · 4 quick reps
The same idea in a real exam question:
CDS · 2021 · CDS (I) 2021 — General Knowledge · Q29Moderate
Example 3 · Medieval India · Peasants, Trade and Travellers
François Bernier was physician to
Dara Shikoh, not Shah Jahan
Bernier was physician to Prince Dara Shikoh, the emperor's eldest son. The emperor himself, Princess Jahanara and Prince Murad are the wrong options.
Both books are in Arabic
Al-Biruni's Kitab-ul-Hind and Ibn Battuta's Rihla were both written in Arabic, the language of learning in their world. Persian is the tempting wrong answer.
Summary — formulas & gotchas at a glance
A revision cheat-sheet for the formulas and gotchas above. Click any concept name to jump back to its full explanation.
Reference tables (3)
Peasants, zamindars and village servants6 rows
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Raiyat, muzarian, asami, kisan | Words for a peasant in Mughal Persian sources (majur was a labourer)Q CDS 2022 (I): raiyat, asami and muzarian; not majur. |
| Khud-kashta | Resident peasant farming his own village |
| Pahi-kashta | Non-resident peasant farming on contract, for better terms or from distressQ CDS 2016 (II): both statements true, and the second explains the first. |
| Zamindar | Exploitative, yet often backed by peasants in 17th century revoltsQ |
| Panchayat records | Women's petitions against infidelity and neglect (Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra)Q |
| Balutedar | Village servant or artisan of the Deccan, serving the whole villageQ |
Crafts, mines and coins4 rows
Travellers' accounts7 rows
| Traveller | From and when | Fact asked |
|---|---|---|
| Al-Biruni | Khwarizm, 11th century | Kitab-ul-Hind, written in ArabicQ CDS 2020 (II): Arabic, not Persian. |
| Ibn Battuta | Morocco, 14th century | Rihla in Arabic; Muhammad bin Tughluq's envoy to ChinaQ Asked twice: CDS 2020 (II) for the envoy and 2026 (I) for the Rihla. |
| Francisco Pelsaert | Holland, about 1626 | So much is wrung from the peasants...Q |
| Francois Bernier | France, 1656 to 1668 | Physician to Prince Dara ShikohQ |
| Niccolao Manucci | Venice, from 1653 | Never returned to Europe; died in IndiaQ CDS 2018 (II): Manucci, not Bernier or Tavernier. |
| Jean-Baptiste Tavernier | France, 17th century | Jeweller; six voyages to IndiaQ |
| Abbe J. A. Dubois | France, around 1800 | A Hindu woman could go anywhere aloneQ |
Watch out for (5)
- Balutedars served the village, not one family→ Peasants, zamindars and village servants
- Exploiter and ally at once→ Peasants, zamindars and village servants
- Khambhat traded gems, Panna mined them→ Crafts, mines and coins
- Dara Shikoh, not Shah Jahan→ Travellers' accounts
- Both books are in Arabic→ Travellers' accounts
Test yourself on Medieval India
20 past CDS questions from this chapter, timed at 20 minutes and marked the way the exam marks it. You see your score and every answer the moment you finish. Free to start.